According to our text, communication relies on recognizing what speakers mean when they use a certain word. This is termed pragmatics, which is the study of speaker meaning. Pragmatics is how we interpret what is meant even if it is not explicitly said or written. This relies on shared assumptions and expectations when communicating, which is to say that individuals assume and expect that people have the same meaning for a word as they do. In terms of pragmatics, there is always more to what is being communicated than what was actually said. In pragmatics, context is important. There needs to be pre-existing knowledge of what is likely being said to work towards a reasonable interpretation. An example of this would be when viewing signs with little words on them. By using context and pre-existing knowledge, it may make a sign easier to interpret. According to our text, humans are actively involved in creating an interpretation of what we hear and read by using context. There are two different kind of context, physical and linguistic. Physical context can be location where words or phrases are encountered. An example of this would be a building with the words Dentist Office on its wall, which we understand as signifying that the building is a dental care facility. Linguistic context, or referred to as co-text in our book, is the set of other words used in the same phrase of sentence. An example the book demonstrates is the usage of the word bank. Alone, a bank could mean a financial institution. However, by pairing the word bank with the word steep, we can infer which type of bank is intended. There are some words that exist that cannot be interpreted at all if context is not provided. These words are here, there, this, that, now, then, yesterday, today, tomorrow and pronouns such as you, me, she, him, it and them. A sentence that contains many of theses words is vague without any context. An example would be: If you can’t do it now, she’ll have to come back tomorrow. This sentence, without context, is very vague. What has to be done? Who has to come back? Without context, these questions are unanswered. These words are known as deictic expressions. They are used to point to people, places, and times. They can be interpreted in terms of who or what the speaker has in mind. According to the textbook, one can also infer what is close or distant to the speaker based on what expression they used. For example, using the word this as opposed to the word that. It is important to note, however, that words themselves don’t refer to anything. Rather, people refer. A speaker is using language to allow a listener to identify something. This can be done using proper nouns, such as names, or pronouns such as he or she. A reference depends on the listeners or readers ability to recognize what the speaker or writer means rather than the dictionary knowledge of a word. Pragmatics also consists of inference, which means that we can use nouns associated with things to refer to people and use names of people to refer to things. An example would be saying that you are wearing Calvin Klein or Oscar de la Renta. There is also anaphora, which is referring back. For example, we could use the sentence: Jennifer walked to work today. She forgot her bus pass. By using the term she rather than Jennifer, we are referring back. The opposite of this, in which we refer to something as it or she before revealing specific information, is referred to as cataphora. This, however, is very uncommon, as we tend to use a noun first rather than a pronoun. A way that speakers can indicate how their words are supposed to be interpreted is by using pragmatic markers. These included phrases such as I don’t know, you know, well, I mean. The term I don’t know has recently become a pragmatic marker rather than a way to indicate lack of knowledge. Instead, it has become a marker of hesitation and uncertainty. Politeness has to do with pragmatics as well. In terms of pragmatics, politeness is defined as showing awareness and consideration of another person’s face. In other words, it is how you address another individual. The book uses the phrase Give me that paper as opposed to Could you pass me that paper to show the politeness in an interaction. Whereas one is asking for something, the other is a demand. In short, pragmatics is how people make sense of one another linguistically.